Supporting the Journey of Female Athletes: Key Developmental Features and Practical Strategies
An article written by Sophie Herzog, Øyvind Sandbakk, Trond Nystad and Rune Talsnes
Introduction
Behind every successful woman in sport lies a biological and psychological development markedly different from those of male athletes. In addition, socio-cultural factors often influence women differently than men. To ensure that girls and women in sport can fully realize their potential, we must understand and respond to the unique challenges they face. In this article, we will explore 1) key features of female athlete development and 2) strategies for empowering female athletes from early sport participation to elite performance.
1. Key features of Female Athlete Development
Puberty and Hormonal Influences
Girls experience puberty earlier than boys, typically beginning between the ages of 9 and 12. Puberty is marked by profound hormonal, physical, and structural changes. The key sex hormones involved in girls are estrogen and progesterone, which have distinct effects from testosterone that drives the development of boys. These hormones regulate a range of physiological changes:
Estrogen plays a central role in initiating female puberty, reproductive function and thereby the regulation of the menstrual cycle. Throughout puberty, estrogen contributes to secondary sex characteristics, such as breast development, widening of the hips, and fat deposition, particularly around the hips and thighs. These changes affect body composition and may lead to a plateau or slight decrease in physical performance for some girls during adolescence.
Progesterone works alongside estrogen to support reproductive functions and regulate the menstrual cycle. It also influences how the body feels and functions – including mood, ligament laxity, mood, temperature regulation and recovery.
In contrast, testosterone in boys drives physical changes that support athletic development. It supports an increase in muscle mass, bone density, red blood cell production, and oxygen transport – all of which directly enhance physical performance during and after puberty.
The hormonal shifts during puberty result in the following sex-based physiological differences between men and women:
Muscle Mass: Men generally develop more skeletal muscle mass, especially in the upper body, which enhances power and strength capacities.
Body Composition: Women have a higher percentage of body fat, which is necessary for reproductive health but negatively influences relative strength and endurance – which is one aspect of the natural performance difference between men and women.
Hemoglobin and Oxygen Transport: Men have higher hemoglobin levels, contributing to 40-50% higher absolute aerobic power and 10-15% higher relative (i.e. when VO2max is normalized to body mass) aerobic power.
Anaerobic Capacity: Women generally have lower anaerobic capacity associated with the lower muscle mass.
Growth and Maturation
The pubertal and post-pubertal years are critical periods. We have dedicated an entire article on this, which you can read here.
During puberty, girls experience a growth spurt, resulting in an increase in body height and weight. But not only muscle and bone mass increase, also fat mass – and all of this can affect endurance, (relative) strength, biomechanics and coordination. Furthermore, this growth and maturation process doesn’t unfold at the same time and pace for everyone, and the chronological age does not always accurately depict where athletes stand in their development. This means that athletes of the same age can differ significantly in their physical and psychological maturity. This variability in maturation and biological age demands adaptive training plans.
Key strategies suggested to optimize training during this period include[1]:
Teaching girls to understand how their bodies respond to training and how to manage training intensity and muscular load
Encouraging technique development and motor learning
Gradually increasing strength and conditioning in line with body changes
Incorporating injury prevention programs focused on stability and biomechanics
Creating open conversations and educating about menstruation, health, and body image is especially important. Increased understanding of a possible stagnation or even decline in performance observed during puberty can reframe this phase as a state of expected underperformance. Understanding this may help shift the focus away from performance outcomes and toward process- and training-oriented goals, offering a healthier and more supportive developmental perspective.
The menstrual cycle and hormonal contraceptive use
Women have to train and compete during different phases of the menstrual cycle, where hormonal fluctuations can theoretically affect both performance and training adaptations, but also mood, motivation and readiness. Simplified, the two main sex hormones in women – estrogen and progesterone – vary in concentration during the cycle. In regularly menstruating (also called “eumenorrheic”) women, these hormones rise and fall in a relatively predictable pattern, with cycle lengths typically ranging from 21 to 35 days (average 28), varying from woman to woman. A normal menstrual cycle begins with the menstrual (bleeding) phase, during which both estrogen and progesterone levels are low. Just before ovulation, around the middle of the cycle, estrogen peaks and is not yet influenced by progesterone. In the luteal phase – the second half of the cycle – both estrogen and progesterone levels are high (see illustration of a typical menstrual cycle below).
Figure 1: Figure adapted from Taylor et al[i].
Based on current research, it is difficult to draw firm conclusions at the group level about how different phases of the menstrual cycle affect performance and training adaptations or if training should be changed according to the cycle. While objective data indicate that there is little or no differences in physiological responses across phases that applies to all females, a high proportion of athletes perceive differences in training and performance. For example, Solli et al.[ii] examined 140 competitive cross-country skiers and biathletes. About half reported that their menstrual cycle affected their physical condition or performance. Among those who experienced changes, most reported reduced form/fitness and performance in the days just before (1–4 days) and during menstruation. This coincided with the highest incidence of negative symptoms such as pain, bloating, and mood swings. A high proportion (52%) also reported using pain medication for menstrual cramps in the past year, indicating that many experience pain that can negatively impact form, training quality, and performance.
Other studies have found a slight average decrease in performance during the early follicular phase (low hormone levels). However, even in these studies, there was considerable individual variation. Furthermore, many athletes experience menstrual disturbances (e.g. no bleeding and/or ovulation), which may result in a very different hormonal profile than the typical cycle described above. This is especially the case in sports where body weight plays a role for performance (i.e. many endurance sports) and aesthetic sports. However, note that any signs of menstrual disturbances or lack of menstruation may indicate energy-deficits, stress-recovery imbalances or medical issues. Accordingly, this should be recognized and followed up by medical personnel.
In addition, a large proportion of athletes use hormonal contraceptives. These come in many forms, containing various combinations of synthetic estrogen and progesterone, which suppress the body’s natural hormonal fluctuations and result in a more stable cycle with less hormonal variation. Also here, current evidence indicates that there are large individual differences in how athletes respond to these, and whether they play a positive or negative role in their athletic development.
Therefor our conclusion is that, without universally applicable research-based recommendations on a group-level, it is very important to take athletes’ personal experiences seriously, make sure that they report both menstrual cycle patterns, contraceptive use and possible issues in their training diaries, make it normal to talk about menstrual cycles in your environment, and thereby support individualized training adjustments.
Psychological and Emotional Considerations
While we can’t generalize sex-specific psychological profiles, there are indications that many female athletes have lower self-confidence, particularly during puberty, and may be more self-critical and sensitive to feedback than male athletes. At least, women are on average slightly different emotionally to men, and since most coaches are men, they may feel less emotional support and positive reinforcement. Building a strong coach-athlete relationship is therefore especially crucial. In this context, training environments that emphasize listening/understanding, personal growth, and teamwork will help to build and maintain motivation and foster long-term engagement.
Socio-Cultural Factors
In addition to biological differences, also social expectations and gender norms continue to influence girls' and women’s participation and progression in sport. Stereotypes about body image, perceived competence, and societal roles can discourage girls from pursuing high-performance paths. Often, access to quality coaching, resources, and role models remains uneven across genders. Female athletes are still less visible in media and underrepresented in leadership positions within sports organizations. Changing this requires a cultural shift that values female athleticism and leadership characteristics equally and invests in its development.
2. Strategies for empowering girls and women in sport
Environment matters
A positive training environment that fosters inclusion, mutual respect, and open communication is essential. Coaches must adopt a holistic approach – one that balances physical physical, psychological, and social needs – while actively working to dismantle stereotypes and biases that still shape female athlete experiences. In a study by Bucher Sandbakk et al.[iii], examining how 12 very successful coaches have perceived gender differences in their coaching, one male biathlon coach stated as following:
«The big challenge is that female athletes are often treated differently than male athletes. I have experienced this both among coaches and other staff. My experience is that there is greater acceptance for boys to be heard when they propose that training should be individualized, even when this individualization leads to deviation from the team’s plan. If boys propose such changes, they are perceived as smart and innovative. If girls propose the same type of changes, they are perceived as “difficult”. [...] We have a long way to go in the way we treat women. »
Creating an environment where (female) athletes feel safe to voice their needs is essential for performance. Female athletes are often seen as even more conscientious than boys and find it difficult to skip a training session. Therefore, it is important to empower athletes to take ownership and contribute to planning, training decisions, and recovery strategies as it also strengthens trust and increases the likelihood of sustainable development.
Patience is key
Many female athletes reach their performance peak later than males, often between ages 25 and 30. This extended developmental trajectory is partly due to the biological "pause" caused by puberty and the time required to adapt physically and mentally to the adult body. Premature specialization or pressure to perform early can backfire, leading to stagnation, burnout or chronic health issues.
As one coach in middle- and long-distance running in the study by Bucher Sandbakk put it:
“We must have considerably more patience with female athletes, and thus not rush the training progression. [...] The lack of progress is probably because much of the specific effect (e.g., high anaerobic training load and artificially low body weight) was maximized too early during their careers. [...] Internationally, many medal winners are well beyond 30 years of age.”
To support healthy, long-term development in female athletes, key strategies include:
Periodizing training volume with sufficient rest and recovery, especially during times of hormonal fluctuation or growth-related fatigue.
Using monitoring tools like training diaries and menstrual cycle tracking can help to personalize programs according to the athlete’s changing physiology
Evolving strength-based and technical training alongside the athlete's development stage, with particular attention to injury prevention and biomechanical changes during and after puberty
Maintaining a collaborative, athlete-centered coaching approach that prioritizes psychological safety and trust
Ensuring adequate energy availability. Female athletes are at increased risk of developing Relative Energy Deficiency in Sport (REDs), disordered eating (DE) or eating disorders (ED), which can severely impact both health and performance. Early education, regular monitoring and open dialogue are essential in preventing them.
Figure 2: Strategies to support long-term development in female athletes. Figure adapted from Findlay et al.[iv]
Ultimately, strategies for empowering female athletes are rooted in individualization, patience, and equity. Coaches must resist the tendency to measure female athletes against male norms and instead commit to meeting each athlete where she is—physiologically, emotionally, and contextually.
Conclusion
Recognizing and addressing the unique developmental journey of female athletes is essential to maintain more girls in sport and allowing more women to take out their full potential. In this context, individualization is key; each girl and woman is different and there is no one-size-fits-all approach. To optimize this journey, coaches, athletes, and support teams must be equipped with good training and coaching skills, but also with knowledge about female development, including hormonal changes, growth, and emotional needs, to make informed decisions.
Finally, patience is essential. Girls and women may progress at different rates, and periods of stagnation – especially during puberty – are normal. While many features of this journey is similar for girls and boys, women and men, some aspects may be different. With patience, curiosity and knowledge, we can ensure that girls and women have the opportunity to realize their full potential equally to their male counterparts.
References
[1] For more details, check our article on puberty: https://www.myracad.com/articles/puberty
[i] Taylor MY, Osborne JO, Topranin VM, Engseth TP, Solli GS, Valsdottir D, Andersson E, Øistuen GF, Flatby I, Welde B, Morseth B, Haugen T, Sandbakk Ø, Noordhof DA. Menstrual Cycle Phase Has No Influence on Performance-Determining Variables in Endurance-Trained Athletes: The FENDURA Project. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2024 Sep 1;56(9):1595-1605. doi: 10.1249/MSS.0000000000003447. Epub 2024 Apr 11. PMID: 38600646.
[ii] Solli GS, Sandbakk SB, Noordhof DA, Ihalainen JK, Sandbakk Ø. Changes in Self-Reported Physical Fitness, Performance, and Side Effects Across the Phases of the Menstrual Cycle Among Competitive Endurance Athletes. Int J Sports Physiol Perform. 2020 Sep 21;15(9):1324-1333. doi: 10.1123/ijspp.2019-0616. PMID: 32957079.
[iii] Bucher Sandbakk S, Tønnessen E, Haugen T, Sandbakk Ø. Training and coaching of female vs. male endurance athletes on their road to gold. Perceptions among successful elite athlete coaches. Dtsch Z Sportmed. 2022; 73: 251-258. doi:10.5960/dzsm.2022.549
[iv] Findlay RJ, Macrae EHR, Whyte IY, Easton C, Forrest Née Whyte LJ. How the menstrual cycle and menstruation affect sporting performance: experiences and perceptions of elite female rugby players. Br J Sports Med. 2020 Sep;54(18):1108-1113. doi: 10.1136/bjsports-2019-101486. Epub 2020 Apr 29. PMID: 32349965.
